A groundbreaking study by Rice University physicist Kaden Hazzard and former student Zhiyuan Wang has established the ...

In Bohr’s 1913 papers he envisaged atoms along the lines established by his mentor Ernest Rutherford: dense nuclei orbited by ...

Don Lincon, a senior scientist at the U.S. particle physics laboratory Fermilab, describes bosons as “puppies of the ...

Fermions, like electrons, on the other hand, are lone wolves. Governed by the Pauli exclusion principle, they refuse to share a quantum state—a behavior responsible for the structure of the ...

The Pauli Exclusion Principle prevents more than one electron (an example of a fermion) per quantum state; however no such limit is imposed on particles known as bosons, such as helium-4 atoms.

However, fermions are standoffish (or “subatomic cats,” according to Lincoln) because two fermions cannot be in the same place at the same time due to the Pauli exclusion principle ...